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Routledge is a global publisher of academic books, journals and online resources in the humanities and social sciences.
The concept of a protected natural area under national ownership originated in the United States in 1870 with the establishment of Yellowstone National Park. Protecting areas of outstanding scenic beauty quickly grew into a cherished aspect of national policy. The National Park Service, created in 1916 to administer the national park system, has responsibility over more than 350 separate areas totaling about 81 million acres (32.5 million hectares), visited by nearly 290 million people annually. Besides famous and majestic national parks, the system also includes and preserves monuments, recreation areas, seashores, lake shores, parkways, forts, bridges and scenic trails as well as historic parks, sites and battlefields. State parks and municipal parks and playgrounds are equally diverse and sizable. New York City’s urban park system alone contains some 10,530 hectares.
As highways spanned the United States and automobile ownership was democratized, national parks changed from wildernesses or playgrounds for the wealthy to accessible and affordable vacation destinations for average Americans and foreign visitors. Crowds make cursory seasonal visits, peering at scenic vistas from car windshields: tours of the parks of the Southwest and West constitute family pilgrimages rivaling journeys to Disneyland and Disneyworld. Extended families use them as gathering places for reunions. Caravans and retired elderly people cruise between campgrounds redesigned for large recreational vehicles.
National and large state parks, as multiple-use enclaves, have become pivotal battlegrounds for the innate tensions between conservation and use. Dependent for their very existence on tourism and stimulated by public interest in nature and recreation, parks, paradoxically, are involved in a constant struggle to preserve natural beauty and wildlife by attempting to control use. Those interested in environmentalism, backpacking and preserving a more pristine wilderness become pitted against others who prefer to open parks to more recreational and year-round pursuits such as boating, fishing, hunting, rock climbing, recreational vehicles and mountain bikes. In the West, parks have also become controversial sites of animal management, fire control, grazing, forestry and subsurface rights.
Chronically under-funded by Congress, the Park Service must mediate these competing national impulses. Parks serve as classrooms providing educational programs on naturalistic, historical and environmental issues. Environmentalists seek presentations that encourage preservation and heighten awareness of pollution. Historians and minority groups want greater accuracy and socially inclusive historical explanations. Pressure to commercialize and privatize park facilities, meanwhile, is unrelenting. Corporate financial sponsorship of programs and capital improvements, which many view as intrusive, selfserving public relations, is a constant temptation. Lobbyists push porkbarrel projects and commercial development under the guise of improving parks. While Americans view national parks with reverence, they also regard recreational activities as a civic right. Hence, utilization policies must balance political pressure for special and narrow uses with simultaneous protection of a heritage for the future.
Industry:Culture
Small-scale, non-corporate entrepreneurs in kiosks, mobile carts or specialized vehicles who sell food, periodicals, cigarettes and other sundries in urban areas. They add color and life to plazas where office-workers and other citizens pause to eat or drink outdoors (a more accepted activity than in many European public settings). Certain specialties— hot dogs, knishes and chestnuts in New York, City pretzels in Philadelphia, PA, or ethnic specialties in other neighborhoods—also demarcate territory and identity. Other vendors specializing in books, art, jewelry and illegal reproductions of designer clothes represent more problematic agents of street life—some, for example, appear only at night when police surveillance is lax. Here, regulation of access to public space through licensing, limited locations and taxation have raised questions about rights of free speech in the 1990s, as cities balance vitality against middle-class consumers and established stores. This has been an especially acid debate under Mayor Giuliani in New York, but other controversies about changing street life have emerged on the Washington, DC mall and with regard to food trucks serving collegiate campus life. In the end, these debates are not only about commerce but also about public space and citizenship.
Industry:Culture
Until recently African American intellectuals were assumed to be liberal and aligned with the Democratic Party. The 1980s witnessed the emergence of black intellectuals Thomas Sowell, Shelby Steele and Stephen Carter, among others, who questioned the value of what they described as the civil rights consensus. They were joined in this position by former activists, like ex-Black Panther Eldridge Cleaver, and CORE national director, Roy Innis, who shifted to the right. No longer dismissed as representatives of an outlandish strain of conservatism among a small minority of African Americans, these intellectuals are now an elite representing a middle class that has undergone a political shift to the right at least with regard to economic issues. Their success was embodied in the elevation of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court, and in the support found in the ranks of the Republican Party for black talk-show hosts Alan Keyes and Ken Hamblin.
Black conservatives contend that federal welfare programs have contributed to dependency among the poor, and that self-help programs reminiscent of Booker T. Washington are more appropriate remedies for urban deprivation. Further, in a return to the ideas of E. Franklin Frazier and the Moynihan Report, they have stressed the need to focus on the problems associated with African American men, arguing that the lack of male role models in families has created men unable to work for a living and prone to the influences of drugs and crime. Their appeal among African American feminist intellectuals has, not surprisingly been weak. Further, while many of them object to Louis Farrakhan, many agreed with the underlying objectives of the Million Man March.
Industry:Culture
The combination of America’s love affair with the automobile, vast highways and ideals of individualism seem to make the nation a natural habitat for automobiles defined by the speed, handling, design and power that they give the driver. Indeed, the Corvette dominates American imagery of the fast, sleek, two-seater convertible and has been projected as an American image abroad, even if never a sales success. Yet, American production of sports cars has been overshadowed continually by European models sold in the US, which also out-raced American sports cars worldwide. Issues of class and cultural capital also permeate a world where speed and handling may also be addressed through a Maserati or modification of standard cars into “hot rods.” From origins to the contemporary period, sports cars are defined socially and by media as toys for boys— “babe magnets.” Prior to the Second World War, sports cars in America tended to be designed and produced by small companies targeting niche markets, their fame often exceeding their sales. The most prominent early entrant was Stutz, who introduced the Bearcat in 1913, yet, despite subsequent advances, closed in 1935. The Depression also destroyed the Cord, Auburn and Duesenberg, whose Model J was a very high performance luxury model. By this time, France, Italy, Britain and Germany also had created legendary sports cars whose dominance would continue after the war.
Amid postwar affluence, suburbanization and the impact of European models, the Big Three automakers experimented with the sports car in the form of the Corvette (Chevrolet/GM) and the Thunderbird (Ford). The unmistakable new 1955 Thunderbird two-seater was changed in 1958 into a four-passenger personal luxury car. Ford later reentered the “sporty” market with the Mustang (1964–). The corvette, with a fiberglass body on a Chevy chassis, hit the road in 1953. Despite design changes after 1957, it has defined the American sports car. Kaiser, Nash and Studebaker also introduced sports cars in the 1950s. Artisanal alternatives over the years have included the Bricklin, Cobra and Delorean, while family cars have gained sporty power and features. Yet, the markets of the 1950s and 1960s always included a range of European cars, from the MG and Porsche to the Jaguar and Ferrari alongside larger American “performance” cars.
American sports cars, nonetheless, lost popularity until disposable income in the 1990s made toys for the rich more popular again. European cars and Japanese manufacturers have effectively claimed the market, despite Corvette’s continuing production. Sports cars are also only one option within a range of automotive expressions of money, power and self that includes sports utility vehicles, “sporty and powerful” touring cars, luxury cars, family vans, pick-up trucks, etc.
Industry:Culture
Television in the 1950s gave us the image of a muscle-bound superman standing in front of the American flag, committed to “truth, justice and the American way.” In the late Depression, these comic-book superheroes reinvented and replaced strong men of earlier American folklore. Superman, Batman and Wonderwoman shared not only extraordinary strengths and talents but also compelling traits like mysterious origins and disrupted families, a secret identity concealed by an ordinary position within a complex city (usually resembling New York City, NY), a patriotic devotion to country and justice that overrode the “letter of the law,” and powerful demonic antagonists who mingled science and magic in bizarre plots. After going to war, these superheroes spread into television and cinema; after the mid-1950s, surviving early figures were joined by ever-wider legions who slowly incorporated more minorities and real-life social problems—drugs, racism, sexuality—into this mythic world. While television’s Batman became camp in the 1970s, elaborate Hollywood productions of Superman and Batman in the 1980s and 1990s, which also grapple with the heroes’ humanity, have adapted these figures to changing social mores. The success of 2000’s X-Men shows that superheroes still have American—and global—appeal.
Industry:Culture
The term “urban planning” can be said to refer to a wide range of city-oriented activities: what planners do; what planners say they do; what citizens do to plan their cities; the process by which comprehensive plans are produced; and what planning schools teach.
These activities can be quite different, yet all are facets of the ongoing creation of American cities.
Planning involves an understanding of the concept of “city,” as well the underlying social and governmental processes that shape a city. Its practice entails establishing goals and objectives, developing and evaluating alternatives for attaining those goals and selecting an appropriate course of action. This process is viewed by some as primarily “rational,” based in the scientific method, by others as primarily political, and by others still as a combination of the two. Differences in these viewpoints are reflected in professional practice. Some planners emphasize professional expertise while others emphasize organizing, interaction and consensus building. American planning has evolved from a focus on development of the physical plan (City Beautiful) in the first half of the twentieth century to an emphasis on analytical modes in the 1960s and 1970s.
Communicative and collaborative modes dominated the 1980s and 1990s.
The focus of modern urban planning up to the 1960s was the “comprehensive plan,” of which the centerpiece was the “image” or “form” of the city. Plans were created by governmental entities to address rapid growth by implementing changes in physical, social and economic patterns. Viewed by some as a mechanism of control over development, planning was viewed by others as a process for balancing competing private and public interests, or addressing pressing problems such as inner-city decay transportation, pollution and housing.
Pre-1960s planning was typically a governmentcontrolled, centralized process that was later found to be inadequate for dealing with issues like transportation that transcended urban boundaries, for achieving public support, or adapting to the rapidly changing and uncertain conditions of the cities. Although the last two decades of city planning emphasized procedural activities and plannerstakeholder interactions, some suggest that a renewed interest in urban design has sparked a revival in the image of the city and the plan.
Today public participation is mandated by law in most planning activities. This entails bringing more and new players into the planning process, transferring power from government representatives to citizens and re-defining planning in ways that often defy the bounds of a traditional academic discipline or profession. These idiosyncrasies notwithstanding, planning can be said to distinguish itself from other disciplines by including some or all of these themes: (1) improvement of human environments; (2) forging interconnections among various sectors; (3) consideration of the future; (4) consideration of equity issues; (5) public participation; and (6) linking knowledge and action (Myers 1997).
Industry:Culture
The Boston Pops began on July 11, 1885 when the Boston Symphony Orchestra inaugurated a popular concert; the Boston Pops Orchestra began to perform under its name in 1935. The typical Pops concert begins with an opening section of light classical music. The middle section features a classical or popular soloist, and the conclusion consists of music from Broadway show tunes, film music, hits from the big-band era or patriotic favorites like the marches of Sousa. The Pops often perform their rousing programs outdoors for free, for example, playing for the Bicentennial in front of 400,000 people—the largest audience ever for an orchestral performance. Its renowned conductors of the orchestra include Arthur Fiedler and film composer John Williams.
Philadelphia, Los Angeles, CA and other cities have similar series.
Industry:Culture
While military music, uniforms and flourishes mark pageantry from Barcelona to Beijing, two Americanizations of the marching band deserve notice. First is the repertoire and impact of American composer John Philip Sousa (“Stars and Stripes Forever,” etc.) on millions of parades to follow. Second, bands extend beyond the military and police to become major activities of high schools and colleges. Sports, civic events and pep rallies showcase them, and band members raise money to appear in nationally televised events like Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade or Bowl parades. The elaboration of the band (incorporating male and female students), includes drum majors and majorettes, flag teams and others to dazzle crowds.
Industry:Culture
Taking standard production model cars and making them faster as well as more distinctive produced its own look, culture, magazines and music, especially among teenagers, from the 1950s onwards. These were displayed in “shows” among peers and in drag races (racing over short distances from a fixed start, illegal when conducted on public streets). This culture permeates contemporary films like Rebel without a Cause (1955) and the later, nostalgic Grease (1978).
Industry:Culture
The practice of organizing the design, production and operation of devices, systems, or processes to meet recognized needs. The engineering profession is typically characterized as applied science. Though engineers do apply scientific knowledge when necessary the technological artifacts they produce are not derived from science in any straight-forward manner. Engineering knowledge is autonomous and identifiably different from scientific knowledge. Consequently engineering is not merely applied science.
Congruent with the “applied science” myth is the equally misguided belief that technical applications emerge naturally from basic research in the pure sciences. This has led to an emphasis on funding for basic research and an attendant failure to champion support for applications research. The gradual weakening of US industrial hegemony over the last fifty years and its shift from trade surpluses to chronic deficits is partly due to ineffective application of scientific knowledge.
The technological knowledge and artifacts produced by engineers affect virtually every aspect of society Technological determinism embodies the widely held belief that such technology is the driving force behind social change. However, while the impact of airplanes, automobiles, computers, mega-cities, telecommunications, and more all bear witness to the social transformations made possible by engineering technology technological determinism trades on a misrepresentation of engineering practice and its relationship to society Much of the force of technological determinism derives from histories of technology which focus explicitly on scientific and technical details. These “internal approaches” portray the emergence of technological systems as essentially value neutral. This purported neutrality insulates from criticism the social factors driving technological advances and masks the symbiotic relationship between engineering and society The deficiencies of such analyses are nowhere more evident than when considering engineering design.
Since the Second World War, engineering design has increasingly been accepted as the defining characteristic of true engineering practice. It distinguishes the engineer, qua engineer, from the engineering technician or mechanic who merely produces or operates technological artifacts. The design process encompasses everything from initial conceptualization to production of artifacts. Various non-technical factors influence and constrain the design process, including engineering styles, social determination of engineering goals and the need to optimize designs.
Optimization is essential to engineering design. It seeks to adapt engineering artifacts to particular goals and values, maximizing intended benefits and minimizing undesirable consequences. Prior to the Second World War, optimization was often confused with efficiency—the maximization of output with respect to input—and treated as an inevitable consequence of proper application of the design process. Methods were developed and deployed for maximizing efficiency but optimization was not treated explicitly. After the Second World War it became clear that optimal designs were not necessarily the most efficient, and engineers searched for mathematical methods to objectively establish optimal systems.
It was discovered that mathematical models of engineering systems could not ignore values. Engineering designs can be expressed as “criterion functions.” These functions represent design parameters as variables multiplied by weighing coefficients. The coefficients provide quantitative measures of the value of each design parameter, thus revealing the extent to which engineering artifacts and systems are shaped by and explicitly incorporate human values.
Value judgments permeate every branch of engineering. Civil engineers design roads, bridges, dams, airports and more. Though concerned more with utility and efficiency than aesthetic or symbolic expression, civil-engineering designs are still imbued with social values. For instance, early waste-disposal systems were almost solely concerned with quick and efficient removal of refuse from population centers. In designing wastedisposal systems today civil engineers must consider environmental impacts. This is a clear reflection of society’s growing anxieties over environmental pollution. The work of mechanical engineers, who design dynamic systems like machines and engines, has been similarly affected. With the increasing complexity of specialized machines and their integrated utilization in manufacturing processes, various physical and mental health problems have arisen for operating personnel. US Government health and safety standards respond to public concerns over such issues by in effect, legislating incorporation of certain values into engineering designs. Nuclear engineering is likewise affected. US nuclear power plants are optimized with human and environmental safety considerations in mind. Such designs may not be the most efficient in terms of energy output, but they do reflect the importance society places on safety.
Awareness of the “value-ladenness” of engineering design is particularly evident in the impact women have had on the marketplace over the last few decades of the twentieth century As women have acquired financial power, industry has been made to realize that designs optimized for males cannot be expected to serve best all consumers. As one of the major industrial forces in the US economy automotive engineering illustrates this shift. Automobiles were traditionally designed for males. However, women tend to be shorter than men and thus had trouble reaching steering wheels and brake pedals and seeing over instrument control panels. Automobile designs have been altered to address these issues. Women are also more concerned with functional safety features such as delayed interior lighting, airbags and anti-lock brakes, and they have led the drive to make such features standard on all cars.
Nevertheless, US engineering remains dominated by a rigorous professionalism that emphasizes the purely technical. US engineers are trained and generally function as specialists who provide solutions to technological and commercial problems which emerge out of existing social systems. Though responding well to such challenges, US engineers are not trained to place society’s needs in broader contexts. This serves to buttress fundamentally flawed systems. Despite curriculum reform efforts to raise awareness of their social responsibilities, young engineers remain illprepared to address the most pernicious problems facing contemporary American society, such as poverty environmental degradation and the impact of consumerism on energy and environmental resources.
Industry:Culture
